Evolution

The definition of evolution is the change over time in one or more inherited traits found in populations of organisms. Some different theory’s of evolution are from Charles Darwin and Lamarck. Charles Darwin’s theory is natural selection. Natural selection is when a species has to change in order to survive. Whether its change in environment, or struggle for existence, or survival of the fittest, the species has to be able to adapt to its environment to survive. Lamarck’s theory is the inheritance of acquired characteristics. It states a changing environment creates a need for certain features to be developed in order to survive. They acquire characteristics needed for survival then somehow pass those characteristics on to their offspring. Over many generations a new species has been developed.

There are two different levels of evolution microevolution and macroevolution. Microevolution is on the small scale in one population. A population is a group of organisms that interbreed with each other and share a gene pool. Macroevolution is evolution on a scale of separated gene pools.

Microevolution, the evolution on the small scale in one population, has four mechanism of microevolution are mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutation is when some genes randomly mutate to different genes. Migration is when one species from one population immigrate to another population and mate spreading their genes. Genetic drift is when a species reproduces and just by luck more of one gene ends up the offspring the other gene. And last is natural selection. Natural selection is when a species changes color to match its surrounding so it doesn’t get eaten by predators.

An example of natural selection evolution is the mice. There were some black mice and white mice in a black environment. Predators ate the white mice because they could see them easier. The black mice had offspring that were black so they were able to survive and grow up to be big and healthy.

An example of Lamarck’s theory is the long legs of wading birds such as herons and egrets, birds that are common around rivers and marshes. This caused by a change in environment. The food in the shallow water was depleting so the wading birds had to stretch its legs to get food in deeper waters. When the next generation was born they had a little longer legs.

Macroevolution, evolution on a scale of separate gene pools, is a much longer process then microevolution. Macroevolution is when the whole family changes over a long period of time and completely changes the creature and makes a whole new creature.

An example of this is humans. we have been evolving as a family for many many years. Charles Darwins says we have evolved from apes. This would have taken many many years to happen but their is actually alot of proof that it has happened.

Evolution is really cool. I would like to learn more about it. To do that I plan on actually doing all the blogs you sent out instead of skimming through them to get enough information for me to write my paper. I did that because I have senioritis bad and I can’t focus at all anymore.

Microevolution

Microevolution

PART 1: EVOLUTION 101

--Go to http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IVMicroevolution.shtml and proceed to the definition of microevolution page.

1. How do the authors of this page define microevolution?
Microevolution is evolution on the small scale. In one population.
2. How do they define a population?
Population is a group of organisms that interbreed with each other and share a gene pool.

--Read the section “Mechanisms of Microevolution”

3. Summarize each of the 4 mechanisms of microevolutionary change that are discussed.
Mutation Some genes have been randomly mutated but this is rare.
Migration some members of a population with a certain gene migrated to population with another gene and bred
Genetic drift when a population reproduces by random luck more of one genes end up in the offspring then in the parents
Natural selection preditors eat one color of beetle because they stand out while the other blinds in.

--Under “Explore further” at the bottom of the page, click on “examples of microevolution” and read the examples provided.

4. Summarize the 3 examples of microevolution on this page.
Size of sparrows sparrows in the north are bigger then sparrows in the south because larger bodied birds survive lower temperatures better.
Global warming some species use the summer to for growth and reproduction. With warmer summers they have more time for growth and reproduction
Resistance pesticides herbicines and antibolic resistance are examples of natural selection.

--Go to the link “Artificial selection in the lab” and read about experiments with the evolution of guppies.

5. Summarize the results of the two different experiments (with and without predators).
With the predators the guppys changed to blind in with their eviroment. Without the predators the guppys changed to stand out to attract the females.
6. What types of selection were demonstrated in each experiment? Are these experiments truly cases of artificial selection? Explain your answer.
With the predator it was natural selection because the guppy changed to bend in so it doesn’t get eaten. Without the predators it was genetic drift.

--Click on the quick quiz link to go to the quiz.

7. Pick your three favorite questions from the quiz and write how you would answer them if you were teaching this class.
How can microevolution happen? It can happen from mutations change in DNA migration or genetic drift.
Is microevolution the evolution of small things? No it is evolution on a small scale.
My dad says we shouldn’t use too much pesticide. Why not? The survivers may develop a resistance.

PART 2: SEX AND THE SINGLE GUPPY

Go to http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/sex/guppy/index.html

Use the simulation to test different hypotheses about why some guppies are very brightly colored even though that makes them easy for predators to find.

1. Why do some guppies tend to be drabber than others?
Some guppys are drabber then others to avoid predators.
2. Why do some guppies tend to be more colorful?
Some guppys are more colorful because the female chooses the most attractive mate and the male guppy has a chance to pass his genes on to the next generation.
3. What role does color play in guppy survival?
Color makes it easyer for predators to find them but the female also picks the best looking mate so the species keeps going.
4. Explain the push and pull that the environment (including predators) has on the coloration of guppies in Endler’s pools.
Color makes it easyer for predators to find them but the female also picks the best looking mate so the species keeps going

Animal Indexing

These last few weeks I had to walk around my neighborhood counting the animals I saw. I had to do this 4 times each 30 mins long. I counted 14 dogs and 1 cat in my neighborhood. They were all owned. This is after the company spayed and neutered all the dogs and cats. They were having us count the number of stray dogs we saw on our walk so they know if their experiment of spaying and neutering the animals would bring down the number of stray dogs. So far it seems like it is working.

DNA Detective Work

DNA DETECTIVE WORK

Unless you have a twin, no one in the world has a DNA sequence identical to yours. Although 99 percent of the DNA is the same in all humans, certain segments vary widely. Differences in these segments are detected through DNA fingerprinting. A small amount of tissue, such as blood, hair, or semen, is all that is needed to create a DNA fingerprint. The sample is cut up using enzymes and the segments are separated by size through gel electrophoresis. DNA is made visible either with radioactive probes or by staining. This reveals a pattern of bars: the DNA fingerprint. If the two DNA fingerprints match, they probably came from the same person. If they don't match, they certainly came from different individuals. In recent years, a number of people convicted of crimes have been exonerated based on DNA evidence.

Activity

In this exercise, you will learn the basics of DNA fingerprinting and consider the use of DNA in criminal investigations.

Part 1.

Use your browser to go to NOVA’s web site about “Killers Trail,”  the story behind the man who inspired the Fugitive TV series and later the movie version starring Harrison Ford:

Click on the “Chronology of a Murder” section and read about the events that led up to the murder trial of Dr. Sam Sheppard.

1.In your opinion, what role (if any) did newspaper stories and editorials have in the outcome of the original trial of Dr. Sam Sheppard?

The newspaper stories and editorials blamed Dr. sam Sheppard even though he was innocent.

Go back to the Killers Trail homepage and select ”Create a DNA Fingerprint.”

Read about the crime and the suspects then go on to part 2. Answer the following questions about the technique as you go through the simulation:

2.What is the function of the restriction enzymes in DNA fingerprinting?

The restrictive enzymes act like scissors to cut the DNA

3.What is the function of  the agarose gel electrophoresis step?

The agarose gel acts like a molecule strainer.

4.Why is a nylon membrane used to blot the DNA?

Because the agarose gel is difficult to work with.

5.What does a dark spot on the X-ray film indicate?

The dark spot on the xray film represented the DNA sequence.

Part 2.

Use your browser to go to Frontline's "What Jennifer Saw" at

The material on this site is about a man convicted of rape but later exonerated by DNA evidence. To read a summary of the case, choose the link to Ronald Cotton's wrongful conviction, then choose "Summary of Cotton's Case."

In the interviews section, read the interviews with DNA expert Peter Neufeld and lawyer Barry Scheck.

Answer the following questions:

6.What evidence was initially used to convict Cotton?

The evidence used to convict cotton was a photo id was made by one of the victims. A police lineup id was made by one of the victims. A flashlight in cottons house resembled the one used by the assailant. And last rubber from cottons shoes were consistent with rubber found at one of the crime scenes.

7.What did the DNA evidence show?

The DNA evidence showed it was not cotton that committed the crime but the guy in prison that had already admitted to cottons crimes

8.How could DNA fingerprinting be used to prevent a false conviction if a case like this was being tried today?

DNA fingerprinting could save a guy from being committed for a crime they didn't do by testing the DNA evidence and the DNA of the assailent.

9.What percentage of convicts are unjustly convicted of sexual assault cases, according to Neufeld and Scheck?

25% of convicts are unjustly convicted of sexual assault cases.

10.The O.J. Simpson trial was one of the most visible trials that attempted to use DNA evidence.  In the end, the DNA evidence was not satisfying to the jury, who acquitted Simpson.  What do Neufeld and Scheck believe about the impact of the O.J. Simpson trial on the use of DNA evidence?

The oj simpson trial made people in prison who are innocent try to use dna to get out of their crimes.

DNA Sequencing Graph

 

As you can see in the graph Abby and Bob are both 97% from normal and Carol is 58%. Abby has point mutation wrong with his DNA. this means that one point is wrong with his.Bob has truncation mutation. This means one point is wrong with his but that point caused the DNA to add a stop. so everything after the stop doesn't matter. so really Bob is 79%. the last is carol she is at 58% because she has a frame shift mutation. one letter was missing so all the rest of the letters shifted over and made her entire DNA wrong. All three people have a chance of having a disease but we don't know them so we can't tell. We are pretty sure carol has a disease though.

DNA extraction lab

A few days ago we did a DNA extraction lab. It was really cool first we mixed wheat germ water and soap together. None of us knew what we were doing. then when we added the alcohol the DNA started to rise into the alcohol. It looked like a booger. My group didn't think about getting a picture of it for our blogs, so we didn't, too bad.

Eugenics

Eugenics

Eugenics is a very interesting subject. In this post I will go through what eugenics are, what is the social and scientific origins of eugenics,  How they researched it, and finally how it impacted America.

Eugenics is the study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population, especially by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits (negative eugenics) and  encouraging reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable desirable traits. This was started in the united states of America. Only instead of just trying to discourage people with genetic defects from having kids. They sterilized them so they couldn't have kids. They also wanted to improve humanity by encouraging the blessed and healthiest people to have more children.

 The social origins of eugenics was it explained the causes of pauperism, feeble-mindedness, alcoholism, rebelliousness, nomadism, criminality, and prostitution as the inheritance of defective germ plasm. Eugenicists said society paid a high price by allowing the birth of defective individuals who would have to be cared for by the state and Sterilization of one defective adult could save future generations thousands of dollars. Eugenics was seen as a way to solve all of these  problems because it placed the cause in the defective germ plasm of individuals and ethnic groups, and not society itself. Eugenics used the cover of science. 

Francis Galton made up the word eugenics. Positive eugenics is encouraging the blessed and healthiest people to have more children. negative eugenics is when stopping the less fit people from having kids. Germany and the united states did the negative approach. Indiana law enacted in 1907 compulsory sterilization of "degenerates",  the First Eugenic Sterilization Law in the United States. people caught masturbating were known as degenerates and then sterilized them to stop the degeneracy gene.

Eugenics research started with Mendel’s laws of inheritance of human traits. Also known as independent assortment which states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. By examining pedigrees eugenicist attempted to make a pattern of one of these three basic modes of inheritance either recessive, dominant, or sex-linked. They had to find big families and score each member of the family of the absence or presence of  a trait. This would work but where they messed up on back then was they attempted to measure complex traits like intelligence or musical ability or complex mental illnesses like schizophrenia or manic depression.

Eugenics did many things for America. The first and biggest thing it did was bring the crime rate down. They made us more educated. Also they tried to save the future generations money. The last thing they did for a America was made us a pure race. 

This was an interesting subject. I'm kind of interested to learn more about it and wonder if we or other countries still do this only smarter.

INVESTIGATING INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

INVESTIGATING INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Mendel observed the effects of independent assortment when he carried out his dihybrid crosses. When he crossed two plants that bred true for different versions of two traits, the first-generation offspring all displayed the same phenotype (the dominant phenotype for both traits). However, when these plants were crossed, the second-generation offspring included four different phenotypes.

Mendel carefully recorded the numbers of phenotypes among the offspring of many dihybrid crosses. He found that certain combinations of phenotypes among the second-generation offspring occur in a 9:3:3:1 ratio, on the average. We now know that this pattern occurs because genes on pairs of homologous chromosomes are sorted out for distribution into one gamete or another independently of gene pairs of other chromosomes.

Activity

In this activity, you will first access the meiosis tutorial provided by the University of California, Santa Barbara. The tutorial demonstrates the random assortment of chromosomes into gametes. Next you will complete a tutorial quiz about independent assortment. This is part of The Biology Project from the University of Arizona.

Part 1.

Use your browser to go to the meiosis tutorial at

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/independentassortment.html

Use the tutorial to learn how to determine which allele combinations are possible in two or even three trait crosses.

Part 2.

Use your browser to go to the independent assortment tutorial at

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/dihybrid_cross/dihybrid_cross.html

Go through questions 1-9 of the tutorial. If you answer any question incorrectly, review the tutorial material and try again.

When you have completed this much of the tutorial, answer the questions below:

1. What type of gametes will be produced by a plant of genotype AaBb?

            The gametes produced be a plant with genotype AaBb would be AB or Ab or aB or ab

2. What type of gametes will be produced by a plant of genotype aabb?

            The gametes produced be a plant with genotype aabb would be ab

3. List all the genotypes you would find among the offspring of an AaBb x aabb test cross.

            The genotypes would be AaBb, aaBb, Aabb aabb

4. What is the expected phenotypic ratio of the offspring of an AaBb x aabb test cross?

            The expected phenotypic ratio of the offspring of an AaBb x aabb would be 1:1:1:1

5. List all possible gametes from a trihybrid individual whose genotype is RrSsTt.

            The possible gametes for a trihybrid individual with a genotype RrSsTt would be RST or rst or RsT or RSt or rST or rsT or rSt

In sickness and in health

In Sickness and In health

Autosomal dominant disorders cannot skip generations because they are dominant genes so they will show up if the person has it. They can't just be a carrier. So Greg and his mother can't be carriers of myotonic dystrophy. Greg's aunt or uncle can't be homozygous because their mother is the only one with the disorder. Also Greg's mom and one of his uncles doesn't have it. Greg's cousin has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene. Greg and Olga's children have a 0% chance of inheriting the gene because it is a dominant gene and neither Greg nor Olga have the gene.

There are five hallmarks of autosomal recessive inheritance: The first is Males and females are equally likely to be affected. The second is On average, the recurrence risk to the unborn sibling of an affected individual is 1/4. The third hallmark is The trait is characteristically found in siblings, not parents of affected or the offspring of affected. The forth hallmark is Parents of affected children may be related. The rarer the trait in the general population, the more likely a consanguineous mating is involved. The last hallmark is the trait may appear as an isolated (sporadic) event in small sibships. Consanguineous means the amount of shared (identical) DNA or the genetic material. This concept is important when discussing recessive genetic disorders because it means they have some of the same genetic material so they have more of a chance of inheriting the same genes. The factor VIII deficiency is sex linked and not An autosomal recessive trait because it only effects males.

The characteristics of x linked recessive inheritance are the disease is never passed from father to son. Males are much more likely to be affected than females. If affected males cannot reproduce, only males will be affected. All affected males in a family are related through their mothers. Trait or disease is typically passed from an affected grandfather, through his carrier daughters, to half of his grandsons. A son never inherits his fathers infected X-Chromosome because A son inherets the fathers Y-Chromosome from his father and one of his mothers X-Chromosomes. For a women to display a sex-linked recessive trait she would need to inherit two infected X-Chromosomes. One from her father and one from her mother. It is 1/2 chance that olga is a carrier of Factor VIII deficency. She has a 1/2 chance of passing it off on to her offspring. Male and female childern will be affected differently because a female child will just be a carrier becasue she will inheret a normal gene from her father where a amle child will show the trait because they don't have a spare X-Chromosome. Their is a 0% chance Greg is a carrier of factor VIII defeicy because he would have to show it not just carrie it because males don't have a spare X-chromosome.

The link to the population genetics wont work so i couldn't find the second equation to help figure out the the rest of the questions. If i get the equation i will update this blog and finish it.

Some of the legal risks and benefits of genetic testing are there is a chance you wouldn't be able to get health insurance because of a preexisting conditions or your insurance will be higher because they know you have a disorder but it hasn't showed yet. The benefits are you Know you have it so you can start doing things to try to prevent it. An unintended consequence of genetic testing could be that people would be less liable to seek medical care out of fear that they could later be denied life or health insurance. Privance laws and laws preventing insurance companys from deneying a person because they have a preexising conditing.

Stem Cells Webquest

Stem Cells

Research using stem cells is a controversial and often misunderstood area of modern scientific research. In this exercise you will visit the official National Institutes of Health (NIH) website on stem cell information to gain a greater understanding of the fundamentals of this topic.

Activity:

Go to the NIH site on stem cells: http://stemcells.nih.gov/index.asp and click on the Info Center link “Stem Cell Basics.”  Starting with the “Introduction” section, read the information presented.

Use the site’s glossary to find definitions for these important terms:

Cell-based therapies-Treatment in which stem cells are induced to differentiate into the specific cell type required to repair damaged or destroyed cells or tissues.

Differentiation-The process whereby an unspecialized embryonic cell acquires the features of a specialized cell such as a heart, liver, or muscle cell. Differentiation is controlled by the interaction of a cell's genes with the physical and chemical conditions outside the cell, usually through signaling pathways involving proteins embedded in the cell surface.

Embryonic stem cell line-Embryonic stem cells, which have been cultured under in vitro conditions that allow proliferation without differentiation for months to years.

Proliferation-Expansion of the number of cells by the continuous division of single cells into two identical daughter cells.

Plasticity- The ability to change and adapt, especially the ability of the central nervous system to acquire alternative pathways for sensory perception or motor skills.

Pluripotent- Having the ability to give rise to all of the various cell types of the body. Pluripotent cells cannot make extra-embryonic tissues such as the amnion, chorion, and other components of the placenta. Scientists demonstrate pluripotency by providing evidence of stable developmental potential, even after prolonged culture, to form derivatives of all three embryonic germ layers from the progeny of a single cell and to generate a teratoma after injection into an immunosuppressed mouse.

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the unique properties of all stem cells?  Explain in your own words what each property means.

Stem cells are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods; they are unspecialized; and they can give rise to specialized cell types.

2. What are the two main kinds of stem cells used by researchers?  What are the major differences between the two types in terms of their sources and usefulness to researchers?  Give examples for each type of stem cell.

Researchers used embrotic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells come from embryos. They are useful to the researchers because they can become all cell types of the body. Adult stem cell is a body cell other than gametes. Adult stem cells are limited to differentiating into different cell types of there tissue or origin.

3. List some of the diseases that scientists think may be treated using stem cell research and suggest how stem cells might be used to treat each disease.

Scientists believe they may be able to treat diseases including Alzheimer's diseases, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis.

4. What are the necessary characteristics that laboratory-manipulated stem cells will need to have in order to be successfully used in cell-based therapies?

Before being used as theropy stem cells will need to Proliferate extensively and generate sufficient quantities of tissue, Differentiate into the desired cell type(s), Survive in the recipient after transplant, Integrate into the surrounding tissue after transplant, Function appropriately for the duration of the recipient's life, and Avoid harming the recipient in any way.

Stem cell research

South Park
The south park episode Kenny Dies has a lot of true information about stem cells. Trey Parker and Matt Stone did their research for this episode. In this episode they talked about most of the stem cells we get is from aborted fetus or unwanted children as they say. Also they talked about medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat a wider variety of diseases including cancer, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and muscle damage. they Said if you put stem cells next to the cells you need they will clone. There is one thing that is extremely false if you put your stem cells next to a shakey's pizza place they will not form another shakey's pizza place. It was a fun way to learn about stem cells but I would still like to learn more about stem cell research so I will read some articles on stem cells.

Onion Root tip lab

Here is our graph from the Onion root tip lab. It shows what percent of the time the cell is in each phase of mitosis. We found the cell spends most of the time in interphase. 47.24% of the cells we found were in interphase. Interphase is when the cell prepares for cell division. The next longest phase is Prophase. We found 46.85% of the cells in prophase. Prophase is when the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome in which the chromatin becomes visible. Telophase is the next longest. 2.4% of the cells we found were in telophase. Telophase is when two daughter nuclei form. Metaphase is the next longest. 1.94% of the cells we found were in metaphase. Metaphase is when condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. the shortest phase is anaphase. 1.57% of the cells we found were in anaphase. Anaphase is when when chromosomes separate in an eukaryotic cell.

Onion Root tip webquest

1. What percent of cells were in interphase?

There were 22 out of 38 cells in interphase so 57% of the cells were in interphase.

2. What percent were in mitosis?

 43% of the cells shown were in mitosis.

3. Which phase of mitosis takes the longest?

 Prophase takes the longest

4. During which stage is the nucleolus visible as a dark spot?

 The nucleolus is visable as a dark spot in interphase.

5. How can you recognize a cell in metaphase?

the chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore microtubules, begin to align in one plan

.